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IP was standardized in September 1981. Its
address architecture was as forward looking as could be expected given the
state of computing at that time. The basic IP address was a 32-bit binary
number that was divided into four 8-bit binary numbers, or
octets.
To facilitate human usage, IP's
machine-friendly binary addresses were converted into a more familiar
number system: base 10. Each of the four octets in the IP address is
represented by a decimal number, from 0 to 255, and separated by dots (.).
This is known as a dotted-decimal format. Therefore the lowest
possible value that can be represented within the framework of an IPv4
address is 0.0.0.0, and the highest possible value is 255.255.255.255.
Both of these values, however, are reserved and cannot be assigned to
individual end systems. The address 0.0.0.0 is reserved for network addresses
and 255.255.255.255 is reserved for broadcast addresses. The reason for this requires an examination of the
way that the IETF implemented this basic address structure in their
protocol.
Note In
the world of IP addressing, 0 and 255 are reserved host address values. IP
addresses that have all their host address bits set equal to 0 identify
the local network. Similarly, IP addresses that have all their host
address bits set equal to 255 are used to broadcast to all end systems
within that network number.
The dotted-decimal IPv4 address was then
broken down into classes to accommodate large-, medium-, and small-sized
networks. The differences between the classes were the number of bits
allocated to network versus host addresses. There are five classes of IP
addresses, identified by a single alphabetic character: Class A, B, C, D,
and E. Each address consists of two parts, a network address and a host
address. The five classes represent different compromises between the
number of supportable networks and hosts.
Class A Addresses
The Class A IPv4 address was designed to
support extremely large networks. As the need for very large-scale
networks was perceived to be minimal, an architecture was developed that
maximized the possible number of host addresses but severely limited the
number of possible Class A networks that could be defined.
A Class A IP address uses only the first
octet to indicate the network address. The remaining three octets
enumerate host addresses. The first bit of a Class A address is always a
0. This mathematically limits the possible range of the Class A address to
127, which is the sum of 64 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1. The leftmost bit's
decimal value of 128 is absent from this equation. Therefore, there can
only ever be 127 possible Class A IP networks.
The last 24 bits (that is, three
dotted-decimal numbers) of a Class A address represent possible host
addresses. The range of possible Class A network addresses is from 1.0.0.0
to 126.0.0.0.
Note Notice that only the first octet bears a network address number. The
remaining three are used to create unique host addresses within each
network number. As such, they are set to zeroes when describing the range
of network numbers.
Note Technically,
127.0.0.0 is also a Class A network address. However, it is reserved for
loop-back testing and cannot be assigned to a network.
Each Class A address can support 16,777,214
unique host addresses. This value is calculated by multiplying 2 to the
24th power and then subtracting 2. Subtracting 2 is necessary because IP
reserved the all 0s address for identifying the network and the all
1s address for broadcasting within that network.
The first table of Figure
presents the proportion of network to host octets.
Class B Addresses
The Class B addresses were designed to
support the needs of moderate- to large-sized networks. The range of
possible Class B network addresses is from 128.1.0.0 to 191.254.0.0. The
mathematical logic underlying this class is fairly simple. A Class B IP
address uses two of the four octets to indicate the network address. The
other two octets enumerate host addresses. The first 2 bits of the first
octet of a Class B address are 10. The remaining 6 bits may be populated
with either 1s or 0s. This mathematically limits the possible range of the
Class B address space to 191, which is the sum of 128 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 4 +
2 + 1.
The last 16 bits (two octets) identify
potential host addresses. Each Class B address can support 65,534 unique
host addresses. This number is calculated by multiplying two to the 16th
power and subtracting two (values reserved by IP). Mathematically, there
can only be 16,382 Class B networks defined.
The second table of Figure
presents the proportion of network to host octets.
Class C Addresses
Each Class C address uses three octets for
network addressing and just one octet for host addressing.
The first 3 bits of the first octet of a
Class C address are 110. The first 2 bits sum to a decimal value of 192
(128 + 64). This forms the lower mathematical boundary of the Class C
address space. The third bit equates to a decimal value of 32. Forcing
this bit to a value of 0 establishes the upper mathematical boundary of
the address space. Lacking the capability to use the third digit limits
the maximum value of this octet to 255 - 32, which equals 223. Therefore,
the range of possible Class C network addresses is from 192.0.1.0 to
223.255.254.0.
The last octet is used for host addressing.
Each Class C address can support a theoretical maximum of 256 unique host
addresses (0 through 255), but only 254 are usable because 0 and 255 are
not valid host numbers. There can be 2,097,150 different Class C network
numbers.
The third table of Figure
presents the proportion of network to host octets.
Class D Addresses
The Class D address class was created to
enable multicasting in an IP network. The Class D multicasting mechanisms
had seen only limited usage until recently. Multicast addressing has
become hot with the use of video broadcasting such as IP/TV. Additionally,
specialized applications (such as stock floor streaming tickers) take full
advantage of multicasting.
IP
multicasting is a bandwidth conserving technology that reduces traffic by
simultaneously delivering a single stream of information to thousands of
corporate recipients and homes. Applications that take advantage of
multicast include video conferencing, corporate communications, distance
learning, and distribution of software, stock quotes, and news. 
Therefore, a single station can
simultaneously transmit a single stream of datagrams to multiple
recipients. The need to create separate streams of datagrams, one for each
destination, is eliminated. Routers that support multicasting would
duplicate the datagram and forward as needed to the predetermined end
systems. Multicasting has long been deemed a desirable feature in an IP
network because it can substantially reduce network traffic.
The Class D address space, much like the
other address spaces, is mathematically constrained. The first 4 bits of a
Class D address must be 1110. Presetting the first 3 bits of the first
octet to 1s means that the address space begins at 128 + 64 + 32, which
equals 224. Preventing the fourth bit from being used means that the Class
D address is limited to a maximum value of 128 + 64 + 32 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1,
or 239. Therefore, the Class D address space ranges from 224.0.0.0 to
239.255.255.254.
Class E Addresses
A Class E address has been defined, but is
reserved by the IETF for its own research. Therefore, no Class E addresses
have been released for use in the Internet. The first 4 bits of a Class E
address are always set to 1s; therefore, the range of valid addresses is
from 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255. Given that this class was defined for
research purposes, and its use is limited to inside the IETF, it is not
necessary to examine it any further.
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